Health Care Structures and Divisions Essay Example for Free

Health Care Structures and Divisions Essay Complete the worksheet according to the following guidelines: In the space provided, write each term’s definition as used in health care. You must define the term in your words; do not simply copy the definition from a textbook. In the space provided after each term’s definition, provide a sentence that illustrates the importance of the skill, concept, procedure, organization, or tool to which the term refers. In your explanation, you may wish to consider the following: How has it influenced health care? Why is it important to understand the appropriate application of the term or concept? Save the completed worksheet as a Microsoft ® Word document with your name in the file name. Submit the file to your facilitator. Note. You must define 30 basic health care terms related to health care structures and divisions in this worksheet. Therefore, also in the terms already provided for you below, finish the additional spaces on the worksheet with terms from your reading or discussion you were not previously familiar with and had to research. Submitted by Porsche Piggie Term Definition in your words Use the term in a sentence as it applies to the health care industry. Hospital A hospital is a place where a person can go to get medical treatment and health diagnoses Hospitals and Healthcare facilities are a key factor that influence healthcare because this is where healthcare providers can utilize their skills to help individuals with their diseases, injuries or illnesses.  By providing a treatment solution. Ambulatory care facility Ambulatory Care is care where you dont have to get hospitalized. Its a facility where you mostly receive medical care or services on an outpatient basis. Ambulatory care can range from a simple routine to a complex procedure. Ambulatory care facilities have influenced healthcare because it is the most frequent contact people have with the healthcare system. Its important to understand the concept of the term because ambulatory care is the most familiar type of health care people receive. Ambulatory care can be provided in an office of either an individual or group practice. Wellness Center Wellness Center is a place where individuals can get health services for the mind and body such as skin care services, nutrition consulting, personal training and fitness. Wellness centers are important because it tries to reduce toxic stress on the community. Wellness centers main goal has influenced the growth of health care by realizing reducing stress on the community that can help improve the society health level. Physicians Office Is where a provider or a group of providers maintains an office. This is where ambulatory clients and outpatients are seen to diagnose and prescribe treatment for diseases that are not required admission or overnight stay. Physicians office has a great impact on healthcare because it is one of the most frequently used healthcare settings. Its important to understand that concept of the term because a physicians office is only designed to provide diagnoses, treatment, and consultation. Some offices may have their labs and x-ray equipment for performing tests. However, serious ill patients that cannot quickly diagnose or treated will be sent to the hospital Hospice care facility Hospice care facilities is a health institution that provides care that concentrations in patients who are in their final stage of life because of a deadly illness. Hospice care focus on making their last days of life comfortable and pain-free. Its important to understand the concept of Hospice care because it is not there to cure illnesses or lengthen life  expectancy. It is designed to provide support and comfort to the patient in their last days. Hospice concentrates on the management of pain; with that being said hospice has influenced health care by also realizing it’s important to focus on the patients comfort level when they are in the terminal stage of life. Long-term care facility Long term care facilities are institutions that provides people of all ages that are unable to take care of themselves because of physical and impairments. It important to understand the concept of this term because it implies, this care is for extended periods, ranging from months to years to a lifetime. For instance, I work at an Auto TBI Long – Term Care facility where the residences have been there for years since their auto accident. The majority of the residences consider the facility to be there home and will spend all their days living in this facility. Home health care Home health care is taking care of an individual medically at their residence. Usually, there is a home health aide that comes to the house that provides the medical care for the patient. Home healthcare has influenced health care by improving the quality of care for the people who have no family members to take care of them. Therefore, with that being said, it’s very critical to understand the concept of this term because it is health care that can provide care to an individual outside of a healthcare facility inside their residence. Mental health facility Mental Health Facilities is health institution that provides mental treatment for individuals with mental illnesses and include ways to prevent medical disorders. Mental Health Facilities has impact healthcare by providing a health institution that specialize in mental health. Mental health facilities have helped aid the prevention and treatment of mental disorders. Nonprofit facility A nonprofit facilities is institutions that dont earn the profit for its owners. All the money that it earned or donated to use it for pursuing the facilitys objectives. Nonprofit facilities have influence health care by providing a way always to make sure the facilitys objectives and needs are  being handled. For the healthcare professionals to serve their patients with the best care. Public health Public Health is the concern for the society health. Public heath concentrations in the community as a whole, instead of the individual. Public health is important to healthcare because it focus on the prevention of widespread diseases, illnesses and try to prevent a lack of or poor quality of healthcare. CCRC Emergency room The emergency room is where you can take yourself or an individual who are in need of urgent care. This is also where you can take yourself or an individual who needs medical care after normal healthcare clinics or offices are close. Its important to understand the concept of the term emergency room because this is where the community can receive urgent medical attention. Emergency rooms are very influential to healthcare because it developed the thought of having a 24-hour medical attention for the community. Physical therapy Physical therapy is the therapy that concentrates on helping improve an individual with physical injuries or disabilities. A rehabilitation program that help improves an individuals physical independence. Physical Therapy has impact healthcare in many ways. Physical therapy is a treatment that can help improves someone’s physical state without the method of drugs or surgery. It’s important to understand the concept of physical therapy because it can consist of massage heat treatment, exercising, strengthen, and balance techniques. Radiology Radiology is the study of x-rays, sound waves and other forms of radiation and energy to create images and diagnoses. Radiology has impact healthcare by inventing a way to improve treatment by having the ability to view the bone imaging of the body. Pediatrics A pediatrics is a health care physician that specialize in children and their medical treatments. A pediatric has influence healthcare because  concentrates on the wellness of children. Surgical ward The Surgical Unit is where patients are taken care of after surgical procedures. It is very important to understand the concept of the term because the surgical unit only contains the post-operative surgical patients. Also, the term ward is outdated. It was used when hospitals had large rooms with multiple patients. Most hospitals now have semiprivate and private rooms only. The surgical floor or unit is the area of the hospital where the patients expect to have or have had surgical procedures Oncology Oncology is the study of cancer or the medical specialty that deals with cancer. Oncology has influenced health care because it has invented new ways to prevent, or maintain cancer. I am blessed to have oncology and their new studies because my grandmother have been breast cancer free for two years now Ultrasound Is a technique that typically used for medical imaging. An ultrasound can be sound or other vibrations having an ultrasonic frequency. Ultrasounds have influenced the healthcare by providing ways to monitor the growth of a baby while its in its developing stages Hematology Is the study of blood Understanding the concept of Hematology is important because it is how physicians learn to use blood to run tests and figure out diseases or disorders that can be found in the bloodstream. Hematology has influence healthcare by showing us when its something wrong with your blood; it can affect your overall health. Cardiology Cardiology is the study of the heart Cardiology has influence healthcare because it has shown that its more beneficial for a person to stay more active or fit because people like them are less likely to have coronary heart disease ICU ICU is the abbreviation for intensive care unit. The intensive care unit is a  particular department in the hospital or healthcare facility that provides extreme care. The intensive care unit has improved healthcare by providing the community with a unit that specialize in patients who need extreme care. Orthopedics Orthopedics is the knowledge and practice of producing straightness of the bones and muscles in children or adults. Orthopedics has influence healthcare by constantly finding ways to improve joint and muscle damage. It is shown that the majority of the households in America is affected in some fashion by diseases of the joints, skin, bones, and muscles. Neurology Neurology is the study of the nervous system or medical specialty that deals with the nervous system. Neurology has impact healthcare by studying the nervous system. As an individual with Cerebral Palsy neurology has made a big different in my life. Neurology has help people with nerve issues like Cerebral Palsy by providing with treatments that will help individuals live a better life. OB/GYN OB/GYN is the abbreviation of obstetrics and gynecology. OB is short for obstetrics or obstetrician, which is a physician who specialized in the female reproductive organs. Gynecology means the study of women. Gynecology has influenced health care because it focuses on disorders of the female organ. Gynecology focuses on prevention of the female reproductive organs illnesses and diseases. Its very important to understand the full concept of the term OB/GYN because they also the physician who delivers babies ENT ENT is the abbreviation meaning for ears, nose and throat. It is also linked to the medicine field called otolaryngology. The ears are for hearing and the sensation of balance. The nose is use for the sense of smell. The pharynx (throat) and the larynx (voice box) is use for speech. Otolaryngology is important to the health care field because it provides us with the medical treatment for common colds and viruses that infects the ears, nose and throat. Gastroenterology The study of the stomach and intestines Gastroenterology influence healthcare by providing the public with informative information regarding the digestive system and the keys organs that plays a part of digesting food Pharmacology Pharmacology is the study of drugs and medicines. As a pharmacist, you are someone who specializes in medicines and drugs. Pharmacology has influence healthcare quality and improvement by inventing drugs and medicine that help in the prevention, maintain, or improvement for an illnesses, disease or injury. Proprietary Hospitals Are hospitals that are operated for the financial gain of the individuals, partnerships, or corporations that own them. Proprietary hospitals have made an impact in healthcare because more than 50% of the community hospitals are a part of a corporate system, and the mergers will continue in the twenty-first century. Nervous System Nervous System Is a system that includes the brain, neurons, cranial nerves, cerebrospinal fluid, spinal cord, and spinal nerves. The nervous system functions are to relay, receive, and interpret sensory information for the senses of balance, vision, body position, hearing, temperature, smell, touch, taste, and pain. It also coordinates body movement and stores and interpret emotion and memory It’s important to understand the concept of the term nervous system because this system is very valuable to the human body without the nervous system our bodies won’t have the senses and sensations we need in order to live Health Promotion Services Are services that help individuals decrease the risk of illness, follow healthy lifestyles and maintain optimal function. For example, hospitals that offer consumers prenatal nutrition. Health promotion services influence healthcare by providing the community with classes that explains the general health of women and children, health promotion services provide ways to help individuals decrease the risk of illness, follow healthy lifestyles and maintain optimal function. As you progress through your program, you are encouraged to continue to use  your weekly vocabulary exercises to build a master glossary as a quick reference guide to using in your coursework and your health care career.

Leadership Development Past Present And Future Management Essay

Leadership Development Past Present And Future Management Essay This article reviews notable trends in the leadership development field. In the past two decades, such trends included the proliferation of new leadership development methods and a growing recognition of the importance of a leaders emotional resonance with others. A growing recognition that leadership development involves more than just developing individual leaders has now led to a greater focus on the context in which leadership is developed, thoughtful consideration about how to best use leadership competencies, and work/life balance issues. Future trends include exciting potential advances in globalization, technology, return on investment (ROI), and new ways of thinking about the nature of leadership and leadership development. The Past Looking back at the state of leadership and leadership development over the past 20 years, we were surprised to discover more than a decade passed before HRP first contained an article with the word leadership in its title. At the risk of making too much out of mere titles, we note with interest the contrast between that early period and the fact that leadership development is now one of HRPs five key knowledge areas. The last two decades have witnessed something of an explosion of interest in leadership development in organizations. Some of the most noteworthy issues and trends in the field of leadership development in the past 20 years fall under these two general headings: The proliferation of leadership development methods; The importance of a leaders emotional resonance with and impact on others. Proliferation of Leadership Development Methods One clear trend over the past 2years has been the increasing use and recognition of the potency of a variety of developmental experiences. Classroom-type leadership training-for long the primary formal development mode-is now complemented (or even supplanted) by activities as diverse as high ropes courses or reflective journaling. Classroom training should not be the only part of a leadership development initiative, and may be the least critical. While training may even be a necessary element of leadership development, developmental experiences are likely to have the greatest impact when they can be linked to or embedded in a persons ongoing work and when they are an integrated set of experiences. Activities like coaching, mentoring, action learning, and 360-degree feedback are increasingly key elements of leadership development initiatives. Developmental relationships primarily take two forms: coaching and mentoring. Coaching involve practical, goal-focused forms of one on- one learning and, ideally, behavioural change (Hall, et al., 1999). It can be a short term intervention intended to develop specific leadership skills or a more extensive process involving a series of meetings over time. The most effective coaching allows for collaboration to assess and understand the developmental task to challenge current constraints while exploring new possibilities, and to ensure accountability and support for reaching goals and sustaining development (Ting Hart, 2004). Mentoring is typically defined as a committed, long-term relationship in which a senior person supports the personal and professional development of a junior person. It may be a formal program or a much more informal process. Recognizing the value of mentoring, organizations are increasingly looking at ways to formalize these types of relationships as part of thei r leadership development efforts. Action learning is a set of organization development practices in which important real-time organizational problems are tackled. Three kinds of objectives are sought: delivering measurable organizational results, communicating learnings specific to a particular context, and developing more general leadership skills and capabilities (Palus Horth, 2003). Effective action learning may range from tacit, unfacilitated learning at work to focused and high-impact learning projects to transformations of people and organizations (Marsick, 2002). Challenging job assignments are a potent form of leadership development and provide many of the developmental opportunities in organizations today. The level of organizational involvement in making job assignments part of their leadership development process runs the gamut from simply providing people with information about developmental opportunities in their current job to a systematic program of job rotation. Using job assignments for developmental purposes provides benefits that go beyond getting the job done and may even result in competitive advantages for the organization (Ohlott,2004). One developmental method has been so pervasive that it deserves somewhat greater attention here: the use of 360-degree feedback to assess leader competencies. Chappelow (2004) recently noted that perhaps the most remarkable trend in the field of leader development over the past 20 years has been the popularity and growth of 360- degree feedback. Others called it one of the most notable management innovations of the past decade (Atwater Waldman, 1998; London Beatty, 1993). To help those organizations disappointed with 360-degree feedback results, here is some of what we have learned over the years about how to implement them effectively (Chappelow, 2004): An assessment activity is not necessarily developmental. Three-hundred-sixty-degree feedback should not be a stand-alone event. In addition to assessment there need to be development planning and follow-up activities. Boss support is critical for the process itself, as well as for buy-in for the recipients specific developmental goals stemming from the feedback. The 360-degree feedback process works best if it starts with executives at the top of an organization and cascades downward throughout the organization. Shoddy administration of a 360-degree feedback process can be fatal. The timing of the process accounts for other organizational realities that could dilute or confound its impact. Another kind of leadership development method gaining popularity during the past 20 years has involved teams (Ginnett, 1990). The prevalence and importance of teams in organizations today, and the unique challenges of leading teams, make it easy to forget that teams were not always so pervasive a part of our organizational lives. One way to convey the magnitude of that shift is to share an anecdote involving one of our colleagues. During his doctoral work in organizational behaviour at Yale about 20 years ago, our colleague Robert Ginnett would tell others about his special interest in the leadership of teams. Routinely, he says, they would assume he must be an athletic coach; who else, theyd say, would be interested in teams? Importance of a Leader s Emotional Resonance with and Impact on Others Twenty years ago, our understanding of leadership in organizations was dominated by the classic two-factor approach focusing on task and relationship behaviors. That general approach can be characterized as transactional in nature, as distinguished from a qualitatively different approach often described as transformational. Transactional leadership is characterized by mutually beneficial exchanges between parties to optimize mutual benefit including the accomplishment of necessary organizational tasks. The exchange-model nature of transactional leadership tends to produce predictable and somewhat shortlived outcomes. Transformational leadership touched followers deeper values and sense of higher purpose, and led to higher levels of follower commitment and effort and more enduring change. Transformational leaders provide compelling visions of a better future and inspire trust through seemingly unshakeable self-confidence and conviction. Conger (1999) reviewed 15 years research in the related fields of charismatic and transformational leadership, and observed that scholarly interest in these areas may be traceable to changes in the global competitive business environment at that time such as competitive pressures to reinvent them selves and challenges to employee commitment. Prior to that time, leadership researchers generally had not distinguished between the roles of leading and managing: A person in any position of authority was largely assumed to hold a leadership role. It was a novel idea that leadership and management might represent different kinds of roles and behaviors. Hunt (1999) was even more blunt about the state of scholarly research in the field of leadership in the 1980s. He described it as a gloom-and-doom period characterized by boring work, inconsequential questions, and static answers. Research in the areas of transformational and charismatic leadership both energized scholars and interested organ izational practitioners. One factor presumably underlying the interest in charismatic and transformational leaders is the nature and strength of their emotional impact on others. The nature of the leaders emotional connectedness to others is also apparent in the growing interest over the past decade in topics like the leaders genuineness, authenticity, credibility, and trustworthiness (Goleman, et al., 2002; Collins, 2001). These seem related more to the affective quality of a leaders relationships with others than to specific leader behaviors and competencies. Attention given during the last decade to the concept of emotional intelligence also attests to that shifting interest. For example, Goleman, et al. (2002) present data that a leaders ability to resonate emotionally with others is a better predictor of effective executive leadership than is general intelligence. Recent research at the Center for Creative Leadership (CCL) has uncovered links between specific elements of emotional intelligence and specific behaviors associated with leadership effectiveness (Ruderman, et al.,2001). Effective leadership is clearly about more than just enacting the right behaviors, or merely translating feedback (e.g., from 360-degree feedback) into changed behavior. One way 360- degree feedback can positively impact an individuals effectiveness as a leader is by deepening that persons self-awareness about the impact of his/her behavior on others. Much leadership development feedback naturally affects how people think about themselves, not just their interactions with others. Similarly, it can lead to re-evaluations of many aspects of ones life, not just ones role as a leader. It can affect the whole person. It follows, then, that in some ways leadership development itself involves the development of the whole person. The Center for Creative Leadership began during the heyday of the human potential movement, and its ideals and educational philosophy still reflect a commitment to the value of self-directed change and growth (albeit informed by knowledge about the needs of the organization). Virtually all CCL leadership development programs include numerous activities to increase managerial self-awareness, and most address balance in life, including the relationship between health, fitness, and leadership. From our own participants, representing diverse companies across virtually all industries, the feedback is that balance in life has so far been more of an aspiration for them than a reality. The Present Today, effective leadership is commonly viewed as central to organizational success, and more importance is placed on leadership development than ever before. Developing more and better individual leaders is no longer the sole focus of leadership development, although it remains a critical aspect. Increasingly, leadershipis defined not as what the leader does but rather as a process that engenders and is the result of relationships-relationships that focus on the interactions of both leaders and collaborators instead of focusing on only the competencies of the leaders. Leadership development practices based on this paradigm are more difficult to design and implement than those that have been popular for the last several decades in which the objective was to train leaders to be good managers. In light of this, several themes describe the state of leadership development today: 1. Leadership development increasingly occurring within the context of work; 2. Critical reflection about the role of competencies in leadership development; 3. Revisiting the issue of work/life balance. Leadership Development Within the Context of Work Leadership development initiatives today typically offer performance support and real world application of skills through such methods as training programs, coaching and mentoring, action learning, and developmental assignments. Combining instruction with a real business setting helps people gain crucial skills and allows the organizations to attack relevant, crucial, real-time issues. The goal of leadership development ultimately involves action not knowledge. Therefore, development today means providing people opportunities to learn from their work rather than taking them away from their work to learn. It is critical to integrate those experiences with each other and with other developmental methods. State of the art leadership development now occurs in the context of ongoing work initiatives that are tied to strategic business imperatives (Dotlich Noel, 1998; Moxley OConnnor Wison, 1998). Furthermore, best practice organizations recognize leadership as a key component of jobs at all levels and are committed to creating leaders throughout their organizations. Increasingly, organizations have CEOs who model leadership development through a strong commitment to teach leaders internally. For example, Carly Fiorina at HP is annually teaching at 12 leading business results classes. The targets of leadership training programs are no longer relatively isolated individuals who were anointed by senior management. Instead of the thin horizontal slices, the program design is likely to involve work groups or several vertical slices of the organization (Fulmer, 1997). The proliferation of leadership development methods was previously noted. Not just the variety of development methods matters; greater variety is not necessarily better. It is also critical to integrate various developmental experiences to each other as well as to both developmental and business objectives. That way they can have a greater collective impact than they otherwise could have. But such efforts at integration are far from universal. In reviewing the entire field of leadership development, McCauley and VanVelsor (2003) noted that the approach of many organizations is events-based rather than systemic. One method of making leadership development more systemic is to make sure it involves more than training. An array of developmental experiences must be designed and implemented that are meaningfully integrated with one another. Leadership development efforts and initiatives must be ongoing, not a single program or event. The idea of leadership development strategies that link a variety of developmental practices including work itself (e.g., action learning projects) with other HR systems and business strategy is an emerging and probably necessary evolution of our state-of-practice (Alldredge, et al., 2003). Critical Reflection about the Role of Competencies in Leadership Development Although the field is moving away from viewing leadership and leadership development solely in terms of leader attributes, skills, and traits, leadership competencies remain a core dimension of leadership development activities in most organizations. A recent benchmarking study found that leading-edge companies define leadership by a set of competencies that guide leadership development at all levels (Barrett Beeson, 2002). A majority of organizations have identified leadership competencies, or at least tried to define the characteristics and qualities of successful leaders. How then are leadership competencies most effectively used in leadership development? Leadership competencies need to correspond to the organizations particular strategy and business model (Intagliata, et al., 2000). Leadership development programs implemented in isolation of the business environment rarely bring about profound or long-lasting changes; therefore, organizations must develop leaders and leadership competencies that correspond with and are specific to their distinct business challenges and goals. While common leadership qualities or competencies characterize effective leaders, developing such core leader qualities may not be enough. The leadership competencies of a best-practice organization uniquely fit the organization, its particular strategy, and its business model (APQC, 2000). This perspective has also been applied to the individual level. Not only may organizations differ in their identification of critical leadership competencies, some would argue it is unlikely all leaders within an organization must all possess the same set of competencies to be successful- or make the organization successful. According to this perspective, leaders should not be accountable for demonstrating a particular set of behaviours but rather should be held accountable for desired outcomes. This perspective looks beyond competencies, which have a tendency to focus on what needs fixing, and instead focuses attention on the whole person and on peoples strengths and natural talents, not on a reductionism list of idiosyncratic competencies (Buckingham Vosburgh, 2003). Development is increasingly seen as a process of developing and leveraging strengths and of understanding and minimizing the impact of weaknesses. Work/Life Balance Revisited Health and well-being at work are issues of increasing interest and attention, including their relevance to leadership. In an environment of constant change and unrelenting competition, managing stress and personal renewal to avoid burn-out are becoming a central focus for leadership development. Dealing with multiple and competing demands of a fast-paced career and personal/family relationships and responsibilities is a common challenge, and there is increasing recognition that a persons work and personal life have reciprocal effects on each other. We know that individual leader effectiveness is enhanced when people manage multiple roles at home and at work but we continue to learn more about the organizational benefits and maybe even the benefits to family and community as well. We also know leadership effectiveness is correlated with better health and exercising HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING (McDowell-Larsen, et al., 2002). We need to better understand which assumptions about organizational life are challenged by the idea of work/life integration as well as which changes organizations need to make to facilitate greater work/life integration. Challenging work/life situations are integrally related to the need for, and development of, resilience. Resilience is the ability to bounce back from adversity or hardship, a characteristic that can be developed at any time during a persons life. It is an active process of self-righting and growth that helps people deal with hardships in a manner that is conducive to development (Moxley Pulley, 2004). One of the fundamental characteristics of resilience is that it allows individuals to take difficult experiences in their lives and use them as opportunities to learn. This, in turn, develops their ability to face hardships successfully in the future. The Future Several trends will have a major role in our future understanding and practice of leadership and leadership development. They represent, in different ways, the critical role changing contexts will play in leadership development. Leadership competencies will still matter; Globalization/internationalization of leadership concepts, constructs, and development methods; The role of technology; Increasing interest in the integrity and character of leaders; Pressure to demonstrate return on investment; New ways of thinking about the nature of leadership and leadership development. Leadership Competencies Will Still Matter Leadership competencies will still matter, but they will change as the competitive environment changes. According to a Conference Board study (Barrett Beeson, 2002), five critical forces will shape leadership competencies (requirements) in the future: 1) global competition, 2) information technology, 3) the need for rapid and flexible organizations, 4) teams, and 5) differing employee needs. Given these, most organizations will not need the Lone Ranger type of leader as much as a leader who can motivate and coordinate a team based approach? This new environment will have greater ambiguity and uncertainty, and many if not all aspects of leadership (e.g., strategy development) will require a more collaborative approach to leadership. The model of effective leadership in the future will be one of encouraging environments that unlock the entire organizations human asset potential. The Conference Board report Developing Business Leaders for 2010 (Barrett Beeson, 2002) identified four essential roles for meeting the business challenges of the future, and the career derailers that will matter most in the future. The four essential roles for meeting future business challenges include master strategist, change manager, relationship/network builder, and talent developer. The most important derailers in the future include hesitancy to take necessary business risks; personal arrogance and insensitivity; controlling leadership style; and reluctance to tackle difficult people issues. Changes in the context in which leadership is practiced will bring certain competencies evenmore to the forefront, including globalization, the increasing use of technology, and public scrutiny of the character and integrity of leaders. Globalization/Internationalization of Leadership Concepts, Constructs, and Development Methods Future leaders will need to be conversant in doing business internationally and conceiving strategies on a global basis. Globalization will intensify the requirement that senior leaders deal effectively with a complex set of constituencies external to the organization. (e.g., responsibility for managing the companys interface with trade, regulatory, political, and media groups on a wide range of issues). Leadership development is rapidly moving to include substantial components involving international markets, world economic trends, and focus on particular regions such as the Asia Pacific rim (Cacioppe, 1998). Leaders are being exposed to how the world is becoming interdependent and the need to be up to date with international trends that are vital to the success of the business. Use of the internet to obtain information and to market products and services worldwide is a topic in many current leadership development programs. The Role of Technology The technology revolution has changed organizational life. It has changed the ways information and knowledge are accessed and disseminated, and the ways in which people can communicate and share with one another. This has profound implications for what effective leadership will look like as well as how to use technology most effectively in leadership development. Leaders will clearly have to be much savvier with regard to technology in general. Facility and comfort with communication technology and the internet will be a necessity. Given the pace of change and the speed of response time that leaders are now required to demonstrate, technological savvy has rapidly become an integral aspect of leadership effectiveness. It has even been noted that the effective use of technology is proving to be a hierarchy buster. It can be an avenue for people to communicate with leaders at all levels and whenever they need to at any time. Leading virtually is already a reality, and requirements to lead geographically dispersed units and teams will only increase. Technology will not be a solution for this challenge, but it will surely be a tool. The pressure on costs, increased reality of virtual teams, and availability of technology leadership development has reduced the need for people to travel to training programs, will make learning opportunities available to geographically dispersed leaders, and will allow individuals access to learning opportunities when it best suits their schedule. Technology can extend learning over time rather than limiting it to time spent in the classroom. Technology will also enhance the emergence and sharing of knowledge among participants via such venues as chat-rooms, thought leader access, e-learning advances, e-mentoring/ shadowing, and business simulations. While technology is useful for some aspects of leadership development, it cannot replace the importance of bringing leaders together to deepen their relationships and their learning experience. Maximizing the effectiveness of leadership development offers the best of both worlds: integrating face-to-face classroom and coaching experiences with technology-based tools and processes, i.e., blended learning solutions (e.g., Alexander Ciaschi, 2002). Increasing Interest in the Integrity and Character of Leaders The 1990s witnessed ethical lapses and arrogance among senior executives of certain companies of disturbing-if-not-unprecedented magnitude. Enron and WorldCom were two notable examples. Such events probably accelerated and deepened growing sentiment among many-including members of organizational governance boards-that interrelationships among leadership, character, and values ought to be made more salient. It is probably not a coincidence that a recent article in CEO Magazine (Martin, 2003) observed that the age of the imperial CEO is waning. In its place, a crop of new CEOs humble, team building, highly communicative are rising (p.25). Similarly, one of the intriguing and unexpected findings in the book Good to Great (Collins, 2001) was of the universally modest and self-effacing nature of CEOs in the good-to-great companies. This contrasts considerably with the often flamboyant and self-promoting style of many popular business leaders in recent years who, despite celebrity status, typically did not have an enduring positive impact on their companies. Bass and Steidlmeier (1999) noted that transformational leadership is only authentic when it is grounded on the leaders moral character, concern for others, and congruence of ethical values with action. A leaders credibility and trustworthiness are critical, and increasing numbers make the case that character-as defined by qualities like ones striving for fairness, respecting others, humility, and concern for the greater good-represents the most critical quality of leadership (e.g., Sankar, 2003). Assuming there is continuing if not increasing interest in the character of leaders, much work is needed in the years ahead to assure greater clarity of concept about these vital-yet-elusive concepts if they are to play a prominent role in leadership development practices in organizations. Pressure to Demonstrate Return on Investment The future trends noted reflect in part a response to the changing context of leadership. Perhaps the strongest pressure facing leadership practitioners in the future may be to demonstrate ROI (Kincaid Gordick, 2003). While leadership development is strategically important, it is usually expensive. Yet while leading-edge companies today such as PepsiCo, IBM, and Johnson and Johnson spend significant time and resources on leadership development, attempts to quantify its benefits precisely have remained elusive and have led some to speculate that investment in developing better leaders may be falling short of the desired impact. In todays economy, leadership development expenses will likely have to meet certain standards of proof of impact or return on investment. Demonstrating and quantifying the impact of leadership development investments is likely to emerge as a priority for organizations committed to building leadership strength. To maximize ROI for leadership development efforts, its payoffs organizations must effectively plan, implement, and evaluate their initiatives. They must create a chain of impact that connects leadership development to relevant organizational outcomes (Martineau Hannum, 2003). Historically, most organizations have not closed the loop through systematic evaluation and thus make assumptions about its efficacy based on anecdotes, reactions, or hunches. New Ways of Thinking about the Nature of Leadership and Leadership Development Emerging new perspectives on the nature of leadership may profoundly affect our thinking about leadership development. Increasingly, leadership and leadership development are seen as inherently collaborative, social, and relational processes (Day, 2001). Similarly, Vicere (2002) has noted the advent of the networked economy where partnerships, strategic and tactical, customer and supplier, personal and organizational, are essential to competitive effectiveness. As a result, leadership will be understood as the collective capacity of all members of an organization to accomplish such critical tasks as setting direction, creating alignment, and gaining commitment. Leadership development based on this paradigm is more difficult to design and implement than those that have been popular for the last several decades in which the focus was to train individual leaders. Taking this next step will require a deeper understanding of the role of organizational systems and culture in leadership development (VanVelsor McCauley, 2004). Conclusion The dual challenges of understanding the nature of leadership development and implementing effective leadership development practices will likely be greater than ever before. At the same time, we find ourselves guardedly optimistic about the fields future. Our optimism is directly tied to some of the trends that make the future both challenging and interesting. For example, leadership development practices will need to become better integrated in the broader context of organizational business challenges and systems. Thus, not only will organizations need to hire and develop leaders, they will also need to be the kind of organizations that nurture and reinforce enactment of the kinds of behaviours desired in those leaders. Similarly, demands to demonstrate ROI can encourage greater rigor and clarity in our understanding of the nature of leadership development and in how we assess its impact. Meeting such challenges will be one important thrust of more comprehensive efforts in the years ahead to demonstrate convincingly the strategic role of people in organizations.

Use of Wood as a Building Material

Use of Wood as a Building Material Wood is quite unique when compared to most building materials used today given that its material makeup is a result of naturally grown biological tissue (ill.18). Thus, the material makeup and structure of wood is significantly different than that of most industrially produced, isotropic materials. Upon close examination, wood can be described as an anisotropic natural fiber composite. In contrast to isotropy, which constitutes identical properties in all directions of a material, anisotropy concerns the property of being directionally dependent. For instance, one can see this in the way that wood can bend easily in the tangential axis (ill.19) which is the direction perpendicular to its grain direction. When examining wood from any given angle, one can identify material characteristics and behaviours specific to that angle, relative to the material’s main grain orientation. That is to say, should one examine the material properties of wood at an angle 45 degrees to the main g rain orientation, one will discover properties extremely different than those obtained from an angle 90 degrees to the main grain orientation. The directionally dependent property of wood is a result of the horizontal or vertical orientation of the individual cells and the arrangements of growth layers in a tree.[1] Throughout architectural history, this inherent heterogeneity of wood as well as its complex material characteristics have often been characterized as deficiencies by architects, engineers and members of the timber industry.[2] This can be traced to the fact that most designs and construction methodologies used today require the use of materials bearing minimal variations in their properties and behaviours in order to satisfy the need for isotropic structures. In contrast, this thesis views wood’s complex material makeup and its capacities as significant advantages rather than deficiencies. Furthermore, it aims to understand these interesting characteristics of wood and employ them through an informed design process. In addition to these complex material properties, wood also presents many favorable characteristics including diversity, weight, strength, appearance, workability, cost and availability. Another factor that makes wood a very appealing material today concerns its overall ecological advantages. In light of the environmental challenges that the built environment is facing today, it is becoming increasingly recognized that very few building materials can rival woods environmental benefits. Wood is a natural, renewable material that holds a very low level of embodied energy. It is known for its ability to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by storing CO2 and also by substituting for materials with a high carbon content[3]. In this manner, the use of wood actually produces a positive carbon footprint.[4] Wood is also an extremely energy efficient building material in its production. For example, wood requires 50 times less energy in its manufacturing than steel to ensure a given structural st iffness as a whole.[5] Unlike many natural resources, forests consist of a renewable resource. With careful forest management, one can ensure that forests thrive and continue to provide the many benefits to which we have become accustomed. Foresters can calculate an allowable cut of trees per year for any given forest area that will secure a stable harvest. Tree farming is yet another way of sustainably satisfying todays demand for wood. Programs at Oak Ridge National Laboratory have engineered a breed of super trees that can grow at rapid speeds in order to create a substantial amount of bio mass in a single given acre. These engineered trees are being farmed at tree farms such as the Boardman Tree Farm LLC, and are redefining modern forestry (ill.20). The Boardman Tree Farm plantations are located in eastern Oregon, United States, where dry desert land has been transformed into a thirty thousand acre farm. This plantation currently has seventy million trees and is capable of producing half a million tree s every year to satisfy demands. The plantation harvests five acres of trees every day in order to maintain this continuous cycle.[6] As a result of woods naturally-grown origin, its unique material composition accounts for most of its properties and characteristics.[7] The aim of the thesis is to explore some of the potential ways of utilizing the material properties and specific material characteristics of wood in the design field. In order to do so, the heterogeneous structure of wood must first be understood in greater detail. Wood can be defined as a low-density, cellular, composite material and as such, does not readily fall into a single class of material, but rather overlaps a number of classes. In terms of its high strength performance and affordability, timber remains the worlds most successful fiber composite. On the microscopic scale, one can describe wood as a natural fiber composite.[8] (Ill.21) Wood cells are comprised of layers, upon which cellulose microfibrils function like fibers embedded in a matrix of lignin and hemicelluloses, reinforcing the assembly as a whole. Due to this makeup at the microscopic level, wood shares a number of properties with materials like: synthetic composites, reinforced plastics, fiberglass, and carbon fiber. Similar to wood, these materials are characterized with relatively low stiffness in combination with relatively high structural capacity. In other words, wood contains innate elastic properties especially well-suited for construction methods that seek to employ elasticity in achieving complex lightweight structures from initially planar elements. What follows is intended as a brief overview of the material composition of wood. Understanding the anatomical aspects of wood is imperative to the research and investigations that have been conducted. In contrast to building materials that are specifically designed and manufactured to suit the needs of an architect or an engineer, wood is a result of the biological tissue functions that take place in a tree. Although there exists a wide variety of species of trees in the world, all trees, despite their diversity, share certain characteristics. Trees are all vascular and perennial which means they are capable of adding yearly growth to previously grown wood. The growth process of a tree occurs in the cambium, a thin layer of living cells between the bark of the tree and the inner stem structure. (Ill.22) Cambial cells have thin walls and divide themselves lengthwise to grow into two new cells. Following the cell division, one of the two cells enlarges to become another cambial mother cell while the other either matures into a bark cell or forms towards the inside of the cambium to become a new wood cell. When the primary wood cells reach maturity and develop into their mature size, a secondary wall is constructed from long chain hemicellulose and cellulose molecules. The long chains of cellulose molecules are oriented in a direction parallel to the long axis of the cells and reinforced by lignin (ill.23). Lignin is an integral part of the woods cellulous structure because it provides support for the cells. It is also the material that gives rigidity to plants.[9] The distribution and orientation of the cells along with the material structure of the cell walls determine most of the resulting characteristics and properties of wood.[10] Trees are characterized into two types: softwoods and hardwoods (ill.24). The terms ‘softwood’ and ‘hardwood’ do not signify softness or hardness of wood. The two terminologies are related to the botany of the species and to the way in which a tree grows. The differences between the two types of wood can be seen in the cellular structure of the materials. In the relatively simple cellular structure of softwood, nine tenths of the wood volume consists of one cell type called tracheid, while the remainder consist of ray tissues. Tracheids are fiber-like cells and have a length-to-width ratio of 100:1, meaning that they are approximately one hundred times longer than they are wide. The tracheid cells are arranged parallel to the stem axis located in the radial layers of the tree and are responsible for the transport of water and minerals throughout the tree. In contrast, a much greater variety of cell types and arrangement configurations are present in hardwoods. In addition to tracheids, hardwoods also contain vessels, rays and fiber cells. Vessel elements in hardwood have a large diameter and thin walls, containing no end-to-end walls. As a result, they are arranged in an end-to-end formation that is parallel to the stem axis of the tree, forming continuous channels that carry sap through the tree. Unlike vessels, fiber cells are much smaller in diameter and have thicker cell walls and possess closed tapered ends (ill.25). In both softwood and hardwood, the structure, distribution and orientation of cells are the determining factors of the anisotropic, structural, and hygroscopic characteristics of wood.[11] The anisotropic and hygroscopic characteristics of wood resulting from its internal cellular structure have traditionally been regarded as problematic in the practices of architecture and structural engineering, especially when compared to more homogeneous, stable, industrially produced isotropic materials like steel, plastic or glass. In design approaches within architecture, engineering and timber industries, knowledge of wood’s material composition and characteristics has mostly been employed to counterbalance its complex material behaviours.[12] For instance, the development of engineered industrial wood products (ex: MDF, or cross-laminated-timber) came as a response to the heterogeneous composition of wood. These wood products are capable of producing a material that is much more homogenous and which provides isotropic material characteristics. Unfortunately, the design opportunities that could be made possible using the innate heterogeneous characteristics of wood are too often overlooked in todays construction projects. In fact, particularly in North America, the construction material of wood is often no longer referred to as such. Instead, wood is referred to as a dimensional building element, such as a ‘24’. The aim of this research is to propose an alternative approach to design which views wood’s complex material composition and related behaviours as advantageous rather than problematic. Such an integrated design approach can perhaps contribute towards a renewed appreciation for the behavioral capacities of wood and the rich design opportunities that can be realized thanks to the natural anatomy of this material. Three-ply plywood and veneer are unmistakably industrially-produced materials. However, unlike other industrially-produced materials such as steel, glass, plastic, MDF or particle board, three-ply plywood and veneer are anisotropic materials. This signifies that the properties and behaviours of these materials vary significantly in relation to the fiber direction. For example, veneer and plywood encounter considerable differences in stiffness depending on the grain direction. The compressive strength of wood differs significantly depending on grain direction, as do most of its other mechanical and material properties. The following section details the manufacturing process of veneer and plywood in order to better understand the material exploration that will be presented in Chapter 3. Plywood may appear to be a relatively new industrially-produced wood product, however its concept is in fact very old and can be traced back to more than 5,000 years. Before the word â€Å"plywood† was invented in the 1920s, the process was referred to as veneering. One of the earliest traces of plywood was found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun, an Egyptian Pharaoh who ruled around the year 1334 BC. The discovered pieces of plywood were remains of coffins made of six layers of wood, each 4mm thick and held together by glue and wooden pegs.[13] The plywood remains were fabricated using the same fundamental techniques as today. Like modern plywood, the grains of the layers where arranged perpendicularly with each layer for strength[14] (ill.26). From this period onwards, veneering techniques became increasingly widespread throughout the world. Thanks to the development of tools and technology over the years, veneer thicknesses were reduced and new adhesives (ex: glue made from b one, sinew and cartilage) were used to bond the layers together with heat.[15] Although plywood is made much in the same way today, modernized adhesion techniques and tools used in its production have improved significantly, making it one of the most affordable and easily-produced building materials. Both hardwoods and softwoods are used in the production of plywood. The typical sequence of operation involved in the production of plywood is as follows: There exists a long standing discourse on the subject of sheet materials in architecture, in part because these are so ubiquitous in conventional construction. Expanding the understanding of these materials is valuable to the architectural profession, as it allows one to discover new potentials concerning materials which are already familiar. Being a sheet material, plywood thus offers many advantages as a subject of research and experimentation. Like other sheet materials, it can facilitate the creation of complex geometry using initially planar elements. Three-ply plywood is the material of choice for this thesis due to its ability to offer high amounts of flexibility in one direction, without compromising its strength. Three-ply plywood, as previously described, is made up of odd layers, two of which are oriented in one direction, while the center layer lies perpendicularly to the outer layers. Thus, due to the predominant fiber direction present in the two outer layers, three-ply plywood possesses a natural tendency to bend perpendicularly to this grain direction. The core of the assembly, otherwise known as the center layer, provides strength to the assembly by offering resistance to the predominant fiber direction. As a result, the plywood assembly is less likely to break or snap when being bent because it is reinforced by one interior sheet containing fibers running perpendicular to the outer layers. Knowledge of the manufacturing process for plywood is important for this research because it provides an introduction to lamination techniques that can be further utilized in the material investigations and implementations that will follow. The process described above elaborates on the procedure involved in the mass-produced manufacturing of flat plywood sheets used in the building industry. However, the process of lamination need not strictly apply to planar surfaces, but also to the development of three-dimensional forms. [1] J. M. Dinwoodie, Timber: Its Nature and Behaviour (London: EFN Spon, 2000). [2] T. Herzog, Holzbau Atlas (Basel: Birkhà ¤user, 2003). [3] A. Alcorn, Embodied Energy Coefficients of Building Materials (Wellington: Centre for Building Performance Research, 1996), 92. [4] Joseph Kolb, Systems in Timber Engineering: Loadbearing Structures and Component Layers (Basel: Birkhà ¤user, 2008), 19. [5] J.E Gordon, Structure (Cambridge: Da Capo Press, 2003). [6] A Resource That Lasts Forever, last modified July 23, 2014, http://www.greenwoodresources.com/ [7] Barnett and Jeronimidis, Wood Quality and its Biological Basis (Oxford: Blackwell CRC Press, 2003). [8] Composite Materials Natural Woods. Last modified July 23, 2014, http://www.technologystudent.com/joints/composit1.html. â€Å"Composite materials, sometimes referred to as composites, are materials composed of two or more component parts. These component parts may have different physical or chemical properties and when carefully inspected, they appear as separate parts, bonded together, forming a composite material. [9] R. Bruce Hoadley, Understanding Wood: A Craftsmans Guide to Wood Technology (Newtown, Conn.: Taunton Press, 2000). [10] R. Wagenfà ¼hr, Anatomie des Holzes : Strukturanalytik, Identifizierung, Nomenklatur, Mikrotechnologie (Leinfelden-Echterdingen: DRW-Verlag, 1999). [11] R. Wagenfà ¼hr, Anatomie des Holzes : Strukturanalytik, Identifizierung, Nomenklatur, Mikrotechnologie (Leinfelden-Echterdingen: DRW-Verlag, 1999). [12] T. Herzog, Holzbau Atlas. (Basel: Birkhà ¤user, 2003). [13] Lucas A. and Harris, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries (Dover Publications; 4th edition, 2011), 451. [14] H. Taylor John, Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Egypt (Chicago: U of Chicago, 2001), 218. [15] L. Patrick Robert and Minford J. Dean, Treatise on Adhesion and Adhesives (CRC Press, 1991), 3.

Religion in the Military of Ancient Greece :: Army Greeks History Rituals Papers

Religion in the Military of Ancient Greece The Ancient Greeks held their religion to be a personal experience, to be practiced by the common man on a daily basis. Thus, it comes as no surprise to read in the historical works of the period that the people also relied on religion to aid them in military matters. This paper will give historical examples of the people's reliance on the deities and attempt to explain the psychological necessity of these rituals. An examination will be made of the typical forms of rituals, and cite their effects, whether ill or benign, on the military endeavors of the peoples in the age of the Ancient Greeks. RITE OF PASSAGE Many people who experience battle for the first time find themselves panicked, totally unprepared for the horrors of war. Waging war is not a task for the inexperienced civilian. As a result, religious rituals were formed that would brace the aspiring warrior for the obscenities he would face as well as fill him with a sense of obligatory duty through ritual ordaination. Walter Burkert's Greek Religion gives ample detail on the subject: Crete is also the place where myth localizes the Kouretes, who by their name are just young warriors.

History and Politics :: Essays on Politics

History and Politics Dominica’s History and Politics are two subjects that become intertwined with each other as the politics have controlled the history of the island since before Columbus discovered it in 1493. From the indigenous tribes fighting each other for control to the Europeans racing to colonize Dominica the island has changed hands many times, which can be seen through the unique culture that exists there today. During these changes the politics of Dominica were altered as different tribes had different ways of ruling just like Spain, France, and Britain did too. Millions of years ago fierce volcanic activity began deep below the sea, in the region known now as the Caribbean. Some of these volcanoes managed to push their way up from the ocean floor to become islands; the tallest of these islands is Dominica. Since then Dominica has seen many different inhabitants, some stayed for thousands of years while others abandoned the island as soon as they arrived. From the ancient Ortoroid, Igneri (Arawak), and Kalinago (Carib), to the Spanish, French and English, every group left their mark and thus Dominica has a very rich and diverse history. The first inhabitants of Dominica were the Ortoroid who left the South American mainland around 3100 BC. They traveled in canoe type boats and used sails and paddles to navigate from island to island. One of the islands they settled on was Dominica, where they lived for over 2500 years. Evidence suggests that the Ortoroid where extinct by 400 BC. (www.Skyviews.com) The Igneri or â€Å"Arawak speakers,† were the next group to live on Dominica arrived around 400 AD. They were a peaceful tribe that had also traveled by boat from South America, and dispersing to settle on a number of different neighboring islands. During the 1,000 years that the Igneri occupied the island, a well – defined culture was developed that thrived as a result of the plentiful supply of fish and warm climate that is found on Dominica. (www.Skyviews.com) Sometime around the end of the 12th century AD, things took a bad turn for the Igneri. At this time the violent warlike people known as Kalinago, began to make their way up the Caribbean chain of islands, invading and conquering the islands they stopped at. By the early 1400’s they had reached Dominica, they named the island, ‘Wai’tukubuli’, which translates to, ‘Tall is Her Body’.

Definition of abnormality essay

Revision Notes- Abnormality Definition of abnormality * Failure to function adequately- An assessment of an individual whose disability prevents them from pursing normal goals and activities. Rosenhan and Seligman (89)-7 characteristics; Suffering- most abnormal individuals report that they are suffering Maladaptiveness- danger to self (usually occurs as a result of lacking relevant knowledge and skill) Vivid/unconventional behaviour- ways in which abnormal individuals tend to behave often differs substantially from most people.Unpredictability/loss of control- the behaviour of abnormal people is often very variable, uncontrolled and inappropriate. Irrationality/ incomprehensibility- others cannot understand why anyone would choose to behave in this way Observer discomfort- social behaviour is governed by a number of unwritten norms or rules of behaviour (e. g. not standing too close to someone while talking) Violation of moral/Ideal standards- behaviour may be judged ‘abnormal ’ when it violates established more standard Evaluation * Criticised as it depends heavily on subjective assessments- e. g. eople who engage in behaviour that is maladaptive may not consider themselves to be abnormal (adrenaline sports). * Does not sufficiently differentiate abnormal behaviour from behaviour that is non-conformist. * Deviation from social norms-Behaviour that violates implicit and explicit rules and moral standards of a given society. Evaluation * Norms not fixed-change over time. * Abnormal, eccentric or criminal? * Role of context including culture * Risk of abuse * Deviation from mental ideal health- A deviation from the ideal characteristic that people should possess if they are to live optimally. Marie Jahoda’s 6 characteristics; Small- Self actualisation People-Personal growth In-Integration America-Autonomy Poo-Perception of reality Everywhere-Environment mastery Evaluation * Criticised for being subjective as it may differ from person to person and there may be no agreement between people as to what constitutes normal or ideal mental health. * Culture bound by Western ideals of self-fulfilment and individuality (culture relativism) * Most people may fail on some criteria Biological Model * Assumes that psychological and behavioural abnormalities have biological causes. Biological causes include genes, infection, neuro-anatomy and biochemistry. * Genetic concept-supported by Kendler et al. (85)-relatives with schizophrenia and Gottesman (91)-Identical twins * Infection that gets into the brain can cause widespread damage and if the brain is damaged then a person may start to have abnormal experiences or to behave in abnormal ways. (Flu is linked with schizophrenia- (Barr et al. (90)). * Bio-chemistry- Brain relies on hundreds of different chemicals all being in the correct balance.These chemicals (neurotransmitters and hormones) are used to send messages round the brain and nervous system, too much or too little of them ca n cause the brain to function abnormally. Schizophrenia has been associated with an excess activity in the neurotransmitter dopamine. * Neuro-anatomy- illustrates that schizophrenia is cause by abnormality in the structure of the brain; these abnormality could be inherited. Concept supported by the case study of Phineas Gage. Evaluation * Criticised for being reductionist as it simplifies complex behaviour to its simplest form. Deterministic- As you have no choice over your behaviour or the development of a mental disorder. * Ethical issue –Labelling someone mentally ill as Szaz illustrates that apart from identified disease of the brain, most so-called mental disorders are really problems of living. * Objective- Based on mature biological science. Biological treatments; Drugs- for anxiety, depression and schizophrenia ECT- for severe depression Psychosurgery- for severe anxiety and obsessive-compulsive disorders. Evaluation Drugs-sometimes effective but side effect, might tr eat only symptom and ethical issues. * ECT- quick and sometimes effective, used to prevent suicide, mode of action unclear and ethical issues * Psychosurgery- used as last resort and controversial. Psychodynamic Model * Signifies the existence of the unconscious. * Psychological disorders are cause by emotional problems in the unconscious mind, the cause of these problems can be traced back to early childhood and the relationship between the child and parents is a crucial factor of mental health. 3 main part to the concept; * The Id- present from birth and is the pleasure drive. The Ego- present from the age of 2 and deals with reality by balancing out the ego and superego. The Superego- present from the age of 5 and is morality (knowing the difference between right and wrong). * Defence Mechanisms- operates at an unconscious level and help ward off unpleasant feelings (i. e. anxiety) or make good things feel better for the individuals. 8 types of defence mechanisms; Displacement-re directing repressed desiresSublimation- transforming aggressive and sexual desires into a socially acceptable expression Projection- Attributing your own acceptable impulses or characteristic to someone else Denial-denying what happen Repression-involves putting unacceptable thoughts and experience into the unconscious Reaction formation- where a person goes beyond denial and behaves in the opposite way to which he or she thinks or feels Rationalisation- involves supplying a logical or rational reason as opposed to the real reason. helps to protect our sense of self-esteem) Regression- Involves returning to a pervious stage of development. Regression is the giving up of mature problems solving methods in favour of child-like approaches to fixing problems to deal with stress. * Psychosexual stage- suggest that if you receive too much or too little at one of the stages you will become fixated at the stage and regress back to it in later life. Evaluation * Psychodynamic model has been criticised as it is unscientific in its analysis of human behaviour. Psychodynamic model has been accused for being sexist as it proposes behaviour difference between men and women, especially women’s inferiority , are due to biology and not social and cultural factors, and so the difference are fixed and unalterable. * Deterministic- leaving little room for the idea of personal agency (i. e. free will) * Ethical issues- people are not to blame for their own abnormal behaviour, but may be partially responsible for the development of abnormal behaviour in their offspring. Treatment * Psychoanalysis- for anxiety disorders Dream analysisFree association-involves reading a list of words (e. g. mother, childhood etc. ) and the patient immediately responds with the first word that comes to mind. It is hoped that fragments of repressed memories will emerge in the course of free association. Ink blots * Found by Freud, who believed that people could be cured by making conscious their unconscious thoughts and motivations, thus gaining insight. * Psychoanalytic psychologist see psychological problems as rooted in the unconscious mind, typical causes include unresolved issues during development or repressed trauma. Evaluation The case study of Anna O (repressed traumatic experience of her father’s death) and Little Hans (young boy who developed a phobia for horses) supports the theory of psychoanalysis. * Psychoanalysis may speed up the rate at which clients get better. * The nature of Psychoanalysis creates a power imbalance between therapist and client that could raise ethical issues. * Psychoanalysis – tends to be expensive and time-consuming * Psychoanalysis is generally considered more appropriate for treating neurotic disorders such as anxiety, but it is less suitable for patients with psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia. Behaviourists’ criticism- behavioural approach to psychopathology think the abnormal behaviour is the disorder and so it is better to concentrate on changing the problem behaviour rather than spend time digging into distant childhood conflicts. Behavioural Model * Behavioural model approach focuses on the ‘behaviour’ of an individual in order to explain psychological problems. * Assumptions of the model- abnormal behaviour is maladaptive and what was learnt can be unlearnt by the same principle. Explains the emergence of specific, maladaptive, or dysfunctional behaviour such as phobia, anxiety and depression, through the process of classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning. * Classical conditioning- consist of three stages; Before conditioning- the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned response (UCR) in an organism. This stage also involves another stimulus which has no effect on a person and is called the neutral stimulus (NS). During conditioning- during this stage, a stimulus which produces no response (i. . neutral) is associated the U CS at which point it now becomes CS. After condition-the conditioned stimulus has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus to create a new conditioned response. * Watson and Rayner study on Little Albert supported the conditioning theory. Before conditioningLoud noise Fear/crying(UCS) (UR)During conditioning Loud noise (UCS) +Fear/crying (UCR)White rat (NS)After conditioning White rat (CS) Fear/crying (CR)| * Social learning theory-Behaviours are learned through imitation, that is, by observing others.Observational learning is particularly powerful for those who model the behaviour are seen to be rewarded. Some phobias such as fear of spiders are learnt by observing other people showing fear when they see spider. Mineka et al. study on monkey illustrates that fear is not genetically inherited as parents of the young monkeys who already feared snakes did not automatically acquire this fear themselves. However, when some monkeys did observer their parent showing fearful reactio n they did acquire an intense and persistent fear. Evaluation Behavioural model focuses on dealing with patients’ maladaptive behaviour derived or caused by their prior conditioning or reinforcement history. * Rejects role of genetic inheritance and the role of other psychological (cognitive and psychodynamic) factors in the development of psychological disorders. * Criticised for being reductionist- reduces all behaviour to simply learning by association, reinforcement, punishment and modelling. * Deterministic- complex human behaviour includes thinking, language, reasoning, problem solving, and feeling will probably need alternative explanations. Much evidence for behaviourism comes from laboratory studies with animal. To suggest this is demeaning to some people, they point to human behaviour as being governed more by thinking i. e. cognitive and emotional factors. * Abnormal behaviour is determined by external environmental factors e. g. conditioning history and social and cultural factors, so individuals cannot be held responsible for their behaviour. Treatment * Classical conditioning includes systematic desensitization and aversion therapy. * Systematic desensitization- a behavioural therapy used to treat phobias and anxieties.After being trained in relaxation techniques, the phobic person is gradually exposed to situations that are more and more anxiety-provoking, until the fear response is placed by one of relaxation. For example: Dog causing Fear Needs to be changed to Dog causing Calmness and relaxation (pleasant feeling) * Aversion therapy- a behavioural treatment that aims to rid the individual of an undesirable habit (e. g. smoking) by pairing the habit with unpleasant (aversive) consequences. For example: Emetic (drug) SickEmetic +smoke Sick Smoking Sick (aversive response) * Flooding is also another way to treat phobias. Flooding consist confronting the feared object or situation head on and not in small manageable steps. The idea is to flood or overwhelm the client with fear because after a time the fear will inevitably subside helping the client realise they won’t die and that really have nothing to fear. This procedure must only be carried out with the approval of the client. Token economy-a behavioural technique that reinforces appropriate behaviour by awarding tokens that can be exchanged for goods or privileges. Evaluation * Research support for systematic desensitization but implosion and flooding are quicker. * Some research support but ethical concerns over aversion therapy. * Research support for token economy but risk of institutional bias and token learning. Cognitive Model * Cognitive model stress the role of cognitive problems such as irrational thinking in abnormal functioning. Irrational thoughts are the causes for abnormality; if the thinking is changed the mental illness should be able to be cured. * Difference between the behavioural model and cognitive model is that behavioural model doe s not take the mental process into consideration. * Ellis (1962) called irrational thoughts ‘cognitive errors’. * Two processes that leads to irrational thinking; mustabation and awfulizing. * Mustabation is when a person stresses that they ‘must’ do something * Awfulizing is when a person over-generalises by saying e. g. â€Å" I didn’t go university so I must be stupid†. This theory can be challenged by questioning the assumption that people who don’t go university are stupid and give example of successful people that didn’t go university e. g. Alan Sugar. * Cognitive distortions are another example of faulty thoughts processes, and include over generalisation, magnifications and minimisation. * Generalisation- refers to learning to reach a conclusion about the world based on evidence from a single events * Magnification- the tendency to magnify small events, usually setbacks, so they appear more serious that they really are * Minimisation- the tendency to turn something significant. Becks research supports this concept as he carried out a research which involved 48 adults with primarily mild or moderate intellectual disability. They participated in semi-structured interview, twice approximately 16 weeks apart, as did an additional 12 adults diagnosed with depression. Participants reported on depressed mood, the cognitive triad, as measured by views of the self, the world and the future, hopelessness and self-esteem. The finding showed that the cognitive triad inventory for children displayed adequate psychometric properties in this sample. It correlated with depressed mood, and individuals diagnosed with depression have significantly higher scores on the cognitive triad inventory for children than those with no psychiatric diagnoses. * A negative cognitive did not predict depressed mood 4 months later, but the inverse relationship where depressed mood predicted a later negative cognitive triad approached statistical significance. * Certain childhood and adolescence experience (such as the loss of a parent or criticism from teacher) leads to the development of a cognitive triad consisting three interlocking negative belief.These concern the self, the world and the future, and cause people to have distorted and constricted outlook on life. The beliefs lead people to magnify bad, and minimise good experiences. The cognitive triad is maintained by several kinds of distorted and unreasonable interpretation of real events that contribute to depression. Treatment * Cognitive behavioural therapy is a therapeutic approach in psychology that is intended to help individuals learn to cope with anxiety inducing or stressful situation by rationally addressing faulty cognition and the ways in which it leads to inappropriate and self-defeating behaviour.

To What Extent Does Globalisation Economically

Module Code: PM504 2T (SS1) Class/Group: Group A, Class F Module Title: Skills for Study 1 Assessment: Essay Assignment Title: To what extent does globalisation economically benefit developing countries? Tutor Name: Graham Henderson Student ID Number: 2059661 Date of Submission: October 25, 2012 Globalization is a source of both hope and apprehension, especially for developing countries. During the past several decades the greater accesses to developing country markets have improved the productivity and living standard and brought significant benefits to economic growth of the world.On the other hand, these positive influences coincide with shaper polarization, heighted the level of inequality within developed and developing countries (Stallings, 2007). Therefore, this essay will contend that the growth provided by globalization in developing countries is short-term; in the long-term, the huge capital flows, the exploitation of labor and the depletion of resources will create  an i mbalance  in  global order which will benefit  neither  developing, nor  developed countries.Therefore, the aspects of foreign investment liberalization will be introduced firstly, and then will be international division of labor and management of natural resources will be analyzed thirdly. At last, the conclusion of this essay will be drawn. Recently, the majority of developing countries trend to rely on private capital as a source of funding. Since the early 1990s, the external capital flows have made a great contribution to the funding that has made up over 75% (Tanzi, 2004:532).The major reason to this capital flow, from less than 30% in the early 1990s to nearly 70% in total by 1998 of sharing on funding, is foreign direct investment (FDI) consistently (UNCTAD, 2003). Since the late of 20th century, due to the great benefits from foreign investment, many countries, developing countries in particular, have changed or created the policies and environment to be more amen able to FDI (Abeles, 2001:12). FDI is an essential element to the economic growth of developing countries, according to a neo-classical economic perspective (Craves, 1996).It means that developing countries obtain the benefits directly from FDI through an inflow of capital, tax revenues, and employment, and indirectly through the technology and knowledge from the foreign investor’s to local enterprises and workers (Svenssion, 2002:576). In addition, the structure of the industry is running to a new level though the entry of competitive foreign enterprises. As a result, to survive in this increasingly competitive environment, local firms are becoming more efficient to raise the productivity to be more competitive; hence, the economic growth rate of developing countries is improved directly.In contrast, FDI may be detrimental to economic development of developing countries since large amount of foreign investment is negative for local enterprises in long-term. Domestic enterpri ses are crowded by foreign companies such as some leading multinational corporation (e. g. Apple, Mobil, etc) from developed countries, since they are often significantly superior to local firms. This effect reduces the competition in market and then the industry is dominated by foreign entities.The panel study of Agosin and Mayer (2000:150)  found that the effect of FDI in Asia, Latin America and Africa, the domestic investment is crowded out. Thus,  Agosin and Mayer (2000:164)  conclude that the effects of FDI are not always positive and that FDI policy plays a role in determining the outcome. With the process of globalization, production becomes more globalized, labor market comes to play a greater role in determining the efficiency and productivity of industry. Theoretically, to achieve optimal flexibility of labour market, international division of labour becomes more and more significant (Benner, 2009:69).It is the spatial  division of labour  which occurs when the p rocess of  production, and it is also known as â€Å"global industrial shift† which means relocated form developed countries (USA, Europe) to developing countries (Asia, Africa, Latin America) to reduce the costs. There is no doubt that the international division of labour reforms the market and brings many advantages to developing countries in short-term. Firms can access to a much larger labour force easily and, thus, this more flexible and competitive market reduces the cost and increased the profits. Therefore, the economic growth rate is improved.In addition, the employment opportunities and wages for employees can be raised in developing countries. However, IDL also has its negative side in long-term. Along the lines of the Stolper-Samuelson theorem, it is argued that an increase in commodity trade with unskilled labour-abundant, low-wage countries leads to an increase in the wage rate of skilled workers and depresses the wage rate of unskilled workers, according to E ckel (2003:181). Therefore it turns into the inequality in wage and even leads to the loss of employee in the home country, especially in developing countries, and it becomes sharper.An international comparison, Gini coefficients, can be used to determine the economic inequality. The average Gini ratio for private households’ net income climbed from 0. 29 in 1985 to 0. 65 in 2010 (Afonso and Schuknecht  , 2011:382). If the Gini index is 0, the income is perfectly equality, 1 stands for absolute inequality. Therefore, the inequality has increased by over twice from the study by Afonso and Schuknecht. It is not only happen in developing countries, but also in developed countries such as UK, Italy and especially in US, with 0. 5 for Gini index (Bee, 2012). Obviously, IDL enhance the inequality. Globalization is also a process to industrialize and modernizing many developing countries, by maximizing the usage and availability of natural resources. For example, due to globalizat ion both India and China are gaining more knowledge and wealth. They can translate their abundant resources into materials to produce more consumer goods, more cars, more fuel consumption, and, more of everything. Then the living standard is improved obviously.In contrast, Curtis (2009:431) claims that globalization also permits developed countries to take advantage of developing countries’ natural resources. As the high availability of natural resource, developed countries obtain the cheap raw material from the suppliers, most of them are developing countries such as China and India, where the final price of the product is much higher. Thus, the majority of the profits go to the developed countries (Yu, 2010:184). Moreover, the increasing trends of consumption could cause the shortage of natural resources both renewable and non-renewable resources definitely (Geyer, 2003:1237).The resource depletion is likely to bring an end to globalization, the most likely to be limiting i n the short term is energy, since the world’s economy is dependent on oil. Thus, the imbalanced or unsustainable development of natural resources is positive to neither developing nor developing countries. Many countries especially developing countries with open policies and environment, cheap labour force and abundant natural resources have gained significant benefits from globalization. During the period of 2006-2010 in China, the target of the growth of gross domestic product (GDP) of government is set to be 11. % per year (Liang and Teng, 2012). With the raised of productivity of workers, employment opportunities, and the easy accessibility to the worldwide market, to every corner of the world, more and more people regard the globalization as a necessary factor to improve their lives. However, human only attains a few successes during the promotion of globalization in short-term, but incurring tremendous loss from the negative sides in long-term from FDI, IDL and the use of natural resources. 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